Health inequalities in the geographic distribution of dental practitioners in Costa Rica: An ecological study.

OBJECTIVE: The uneven distribution of dental health services in a territory can cause an imbalance in accessibility, increasing health inequalities. This study aimed to describe the geographical distribution of dental health practitioners according to urbanicity and area-level socio-economic status in Costa Rica. METHODS: A National Dentist Survey was developed to identify employment status, number of working hours, address and list of the working clinics. Data was completed using information from the national College of Surgeons, including all Costa Rican dentists. The Minimal Geographic Units (MGU) allowed for aggregating the population's individual level socio-economic position. Local Potential Accessibility (LPA) calculated the density of full-time hour's equivalents around each MGU using floating sectors. Clinics were geocoded using Geographic Information Systems, creating 2853 clinical points. Distance between each MGU and the nearest accessible clinics considering full-time working hours equivalents was estimated. MGU were divided into six categories: 'No accessibility', 'Very low accessibility', 'Low accessibility', 'Good accessibility' 'High accessibility' and 'Very high accessibility'. RESULTS: Mean national LPA was 6.5 full-time equivalents per 10 000 inhabitants, 3.4% of the Costa Rican population had no access to dentist; 12.9% had very low accessibility, 22.7% had low accessibility, 35.0% had good accessibility, 16.2% had high accessibility, and 9.8% had very high accessibility. Overall, 39% of the population has a rather low accessibility. LPA was higher in urban districts compared to rural districts and in wealthiest districts compared to most disadvantaged districts. Within districts, after adjustment for district's characteristics, LPA was higher in urban MGU compared to rural MGU and in wealthiest MGU compared to most disadvantaged MGU. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that despite having a high number of dentists, their numbers are small in many areas, increasing inequalities in access to health care. The dentist's free establishment, where they can decide to provide private services within a community, creates zones with very high densities, in particular in the wealthiest urban areas, and others with very low densities, in particular the poorest rural areas. The lack of territorial planning has been one of the reasons that has encouraged an imbalance in the availability of dental human resources. To achieve effective universal health coverage, public institutions should focus their efforts on improving access to dental services in underserved areas.

Prevalence of tooth loss, bleeding on probing and malocclusion as oral disease indicators in Costa Rican male adolescents: a cross sectional study / Prevalencia de la pérdida de piezas dentales, del sangrado al sondeo y la maloclusión como indicadores de enfermedades orales en adolescentes varones costarricenses: un estudio transversal

The evidence to characterize oral health during adolescence in Costa Rica is limited. This lack of adequate research makes it difficult to develop appropriate health policies for this subgroup of the population. This is particularly important because adolescence is the period during which good health habits must take root in order to foster good physical and cognitive development. This study aims to determine the prevalence of tooth loss, bleeding on probing and malocclusion in Costa Rican male adolescents at the ''Colegio Técnico Profesional San Agustín'' (St. Augustine's Technical High School) located in the province of Cartago. Data was collected from 428 male adolescents aged 12-22 years in a cross-sectional study during 2019. Prevalence of tooth loss was calculated as the number of individuals having lost at least one tooth. The average number of teeth lost by individuals was also recorded. The bleeding on probing was an indicator used as a proxy parameter for monitoring periodontal health where the presence of bleeding on probing and calculus was also recorded. Malocclusion was measured using the Dental Aesthetic Index (DAI). The results showed that the prevalence of tooth loss, bleeding on probing and malocclusion was of 19%, 70.0% and 98%, respectively. It was also found that 81% of the participants had all their teeth, 11% had lost 1 tooth, 8% had lost more than one tooth of which 0.5% had lost more than 5 teeth. Considering a general classification of periodontal problems based on bleeding on probing and presence of calculus, the prevalence of periodontal problems increases to 92%. Regarding the DAI, the category identifying a very severe malocclusion was the most prevalent in the sample (88%). It is alarming the high prevalence of tooth loss, bleeding on probing, and malocclusions in a sample of Costa Rican male adolescents, compared to similar studies in other countries. The overarching conclusion of this study is that oral diseases represent an important health problem that urgently need proper public health action.

La evidencia para caracterizar la salud bucal durante la adolescencia en Costa Rica es limitada. Esta falta de investigación adecuada dificulta el desarrollo de políticas de salud convenientes para este subgrupo de la población. Esto es particularmente importante porque la adolescencia es el período durante el cual se deben arraigar buenos hábitos de salud para fomentar un buen desarrollo físico y cognitivo. Este estudio tiene como objetivo determinar la prevalencia de pérdida de piezas dentales, sangrado al sondeo y maloclusión en adolescentes varones costarricenses del Colegio Técnico Profesional San Agustín ubicado en la provincia de Cartago. Se recopilaron datos de 428 adolescentes varones de 12 a 22 años en un estudio transversal durante 2019. La prevalencia de pérdida de piezas dentales se calculó como el número de individuos que habían perdido al menos una pieza dental. También se registró el número promedio de dientes perdidos por individuos. El sangrado al sondeo fue un indicador utilizado como parámetro para el seguimiento de la salud periodontal donde también se registró la presencia de sangrado al sondeo y cálculo dental. La maloclusión se midió utilizando el Índice Estético Dental (DAI, por sus siglas en inglés). Los resultados mostraron que la prevalencia de pérdida de piezas dentales, sangrado al sondeo y maloclusión fue del 19%, 70,0% y 98%, respectivamente. También se encontró que el 81% de los participantes tenían todos sus dientes, el 11% había perdido 1 pieza dental, el 8% había perdido más de una pieza dental, de los cuales el 0,5% había perdido más de 5 piezas dentales. Considerando una clasificación general de problemas periodontales basada en sangrado al sondeo y presencia de cálculo, la prevalencia de problemas periodontales aumenta al 92%. En cuanto al DAI, la categoría que identifica una maloclusión muy severa fue la más prevalente en la muestra (88%). Es alarmante la alta prevalencia de pérdida de piezas dentales, sangrado al sondeo y maloclusiones en una muestra de adolescentes varones costarricenses, en comparación con estudios similares en otros países. La conclusión general de este estudio es que las enfermedades bucodentales representan un importante problema de salud que necesita urgentemente una acción adecuada de salud pública.

Health inequalities in cause-specific mortality in Costa Rica: a population-based cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze health inequalities in cause-specific mortality in Costa Rica from 2010 to 2018, observing the main causes for inequality in the country. METHODS: The National Electoral Rolls were used to follow-up all Costa Rican adults aged 20 years or older from 2010 to 2018 (n = 2,739,733) in an ecological study. A parametric survival model based on the Gompertz distribution was performed and the event death was classified according to the ICD-10. RESULTS: After adjustment for urbanicity, the poorest districts had a higher mortality than the wealthier districts for most causes of death except neoplasms, mental and behavioral disorders, and diseases of the nervous system. Urban districts showed significantly higher mortality than mixed and rural districts after adjustment for wealth for most causes except mental and behavioral disorders, diseases of the nervous system, and diseases of the respiratory system. Differences according to wealth were more frequent in women than men, whereas differences according to urbanicity were more frequent in men than in women. CONCLUSIONS: The study's findings were consistent, but not fully similar, to the international literature.

Excess mortality from COVID 19 in Costa Rica: a registry based study using Poisson regression.

Background: Official death toll related to COVID-19 has been considerably underestimated in reports from some Latin American countries. This study aimed to analyze the mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica between March 2020 and December 2021. Methods: A registry based study based on 2017-2021 data from the National Institute of Statistics and Census was designed (N = 128,106). Excess deaths were defined by the WHO as "the difference in the total number of deaths in a crisis compared to those expected under normal conditions"; and were estimated using a Poisson regression, and mortality and years of potential life lost (YPLL) rates were calculated. Findings: The COVID-19 pandemic represented 15% of the deaths in Costa Rica between March 2020 and December 2021. The mortality rate related to COVID-19 was 83 per 100,000 person-years. Between March and July 2020 (low-incidence period), observed number of deaths was 9%-lower than expected, whereas it was 15% and 24% higher than expected between July 2020 and March 2021 (high incidence period - no vaccination), and between March 2021 and December 2021 (high incidence period - progressive vaccination) respectively. Between July 2020 and December 2021, excess deaths observed and COVID-19 deaths reported were comparable (7461 and 7620 respectively). Nevertheless, there were more deaths than expected for conditions that predispose to COVID-19 deaths. YPLL and mortality rates increased with age, but significant excess deaths were observed in all age-groups older than 30-39 years. No large differences were noted by districts' socioeconomic characteristics although excess death rate was lower in rural compared to urban areas. Interpretation: Reporting of deaths was only slightly underestimated. In the pre-vaccination period, mortality rate and YPLL rates increased with age, being highest in people aged 60 years or older and justifying the decision to initially prioritize vaccination of older individuals. Funding: The study was supported by the University of Costa Rica and the Agencia Costarricense de Investigaciones Biomédicas - Fundación Inciensa.

Health inequalities in cause-specific mortality in Costa Rica: a population-based cohort study

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze health inequalities in cause-specific mortality in Costa Rica from 2010 to 2018, observing the main causes for inequality in the country. METHODS The National Electoral Rolls were used to follow-up all Costa Rican adults aged 20 years or older from 2010 to 2018 (n = 2,739,733) in an ecological study. A parametric survival model based on the Gompertz distribution was performed and the event death was classified according to the ICD-10. RESULTS After adjustment for urbanicity, the poorest districts had a higher mortality than the wealthier districts for most causes of death except neoplasms, mental and behavioral disorders, and diseases of the nervous system. Urban districts showed significantly higher mortality than mixed and rural districts after adjustment for wealth for most causes except mental and behavioral disorders, diseases of the nervous system, and diseases of the respiratory system. Differences according to wealth were more frequent in women than men, whereas differences according to urbanicity were more frequent in men than in women. CONCLUSIONS The study's findings were consistent, but not fully similar, to the international literature.

Diferencias de mortalidad y sus causas: un estudio comparativo entre las zonas indígenas y no indígenas de Costa Rica

Introducción: En la mayoría de los países de los continentes americanos y oceánicos, las personas indígenas tienen peores indicadores de salud que el resto de la población. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar las diferencias de mortalidad y de causas de muerte entre las zonas indígenas y el resto de Costa Rica, en el periodo de 2010 a 2018. Metodología: La población de estudio se conformó a partir del padrón electoral de las elecciones presidenciales de 2010 y las causas de muerte (ICD-10) se extrajeron del registro del Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos (INEC); fueron incluidas 2 747 616 personas para 23 985 602 personas-año de seguimiento. Resultados: No se observaron diferencias de mortalidad entre los hombres de ambas poblaciones. En cambio, la mortalidad fue ligeramente superior en las mujeres indígenas. En las zonas indígenas, por un lado, la mortalidad fue más alta en quienes tenían menos de 50 años al inicio del seguimiento, en particular, por enfermedades del sistema digestivo y causas externas de morbilidad y mortalidad; por otro, fue inferior en mayores de 70 años y se debió a tumores y enfermedades del sistema circulatorio. Conclusiones: Los resultados obtenidos no confirman la hipótesis de una mortalidad sistemáticamente mayor en las poblaciones que viven en las zonas indígenas.

Introduction: In most countries of the American and Oceanic continents, indigenous people have worse health indicators than the rest of the population. The objective of this study is to analyze the differences in mortality and causes of death between people living in indigenous areas, and people living in the rest of Costa Rica, between 2010 and 2018. Methods: . The study population is based on the 2010 National Electoral Rolls. The Registry of the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC) allowed knowing the cause of death (ICD-10). 2,747,616 people for 23,985,602 person-years of follow-up were included. Results: No differences in mortality in men were observed between both populations. In women, mortality was slightly higher in indigenous areas. In indigenous areas, mortality was higher in people who were under 50 years of age at the beginning of the follow-up, compared to the rest of the population, in particular mortality due to Diseases of the digestive system and External causes of morbidity and mortality. Mortality was lower in indigenous areas in people over 70 years of age, particularly mortality due to Tumors and Diseases of the circulatory system. Conclusion: The results of this study do not confirm the hypothesis of systematically higher mortality in populations living in indigenous areas.

Estimating vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 infection, hospitalization and death from ecologic data in Costa Rica.

BACKGROUND: Clinical trials and individual-level observational data in Israel demonstrated approximately 95% effectiveness of mRNA-based vaccines against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. Individual-level data are not available in many countries, particularly low- and middle- income countries. Using a novel Poisson regression model, we analyzed ecologic data in Costa Rica to estimate vaccine effectiveness and assess the usefulness of this approach. METHODS: We used national data from December 1, 2020 to May 13, 2021 to ascertain incidence, hospitalizations and deaths within ecologic units defined by 14 age groups, gender, 105 geographic areas, and day of the epidemic. Within each unit we used the proportions of the population with one and with two vaccinations, primarily tozinameran. Using a non-standard Poisson regression model that included an ecologic-unit-specific rate factor to describe rates without vaccination and a factor that depended on vaccine effectiveness parameters and proportions vaccinated, we estimated vaccine effectiveness. RESULTS: In 3.621 million persons aged 20 or older, there were 125,031 incident cases, 7716 hospitalizations, and 1929 deaths following SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis; 73% of those aged ≥ 75 years received two doses. For one dose, estimated effectiveness was 59% (95% confidence interval 53% to 64%) for SARS-CoV-2 incidence, 76% (68% to 85%) for hospitalizations, and 63% (47% to 80%) for deaths. For two doses, the respective estimates of effectiveness were 93% (90% to 96%), 100% (97% to 100%), and 100% (97% to 100%). CONCLUSIONS: These effectiveness estimates agree well with findings from clinical trials and individual-level observational studies and indicate high effectiveness in the general population of Costa Rica. This novel statistical approach is promising for countries where ecologic, but not individual-level, data are available. The method could also be adapted to monitor vaccine effectiveness over calendar time.

Identificación de las zonas con dificultades geográficas de acceso a los servicios públicos de salud en Costa Rica: una propuesta metodológica / Identification of areas with geographical access difficulties to public health services in Costa Rica: a methodological proposal

Objetivo: el propósito de este estudio es presentar y aplicar una herramienta metodológica para identificar las zonas en las cuales el acceso a los servicios de salud pudiera resultar difícil para la población debido a la barrera geográfica, tanto por su distancia al centro médico, como por su capacidad de desplazamiento, específicamente en los cantones de Curridabat, Escazú y Desamparados. Métodos: a partir de la división geográfica del país en unidades geoestadísticas mínimas realizada por el Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos, se calculó, por cada unidad, la distancia en minutos que se tardaría en recorrer caminando, por la ruta real más rápida, desde la unidad geoestadística mínima hasta la sede de su equipo básico de atención en salud asignado. Resultados: el 3,4% de la población estudiada vivía en una unidad geoestadística mínima clasificada como con dificultad importante de acceso a los servicios de salud, pues presentaba tanto la barrera física de la distancia, como poco desplazamiento en automotores y baja condición socioeconómica. Se identificaron 65 unidades geoestadísticas mínimas (sobre 2014 incluidas en el estudio) que se encontraban a más de 20 minutos caminando de la sede de su equipo básico de atención en salud y cuya población contaba con baja capacidad de desplazamiento y baja condición socioeconómica; la mayoría de ellas en el Área de Salud de Desamparados. Conclusión: este estudio presenta una herramienta metodológica para aplicar en la identificación de zonas a cuya población le pudiera resultar difícil el acceso geográfico a los servicios de salud, tanto por su distancia a un centro médico, como por su capacidad de desplazamiento, específicamente en los cantones de Curridabat, Escazú y Desamparados.

Aim: The objective of this study is to present and apply a methodological tool to identify the areas in which the inhabitants could have geographic access difficulties as a barrier to access to health services, both because of its distance from the health center and its mobility capacity, specifically in the cantons of Curridabat, Escazú and Desamparados. Methods: Based on the geographical division of the country into minimum geostatistical units carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos, the distance in minutes that it would take to walk it was calculated for each unit, based on the actual fastest route between the minimum geostatistical unit and the headquarters of its assigned basic health care team. Results: An 3.4% of the studied population lived in a minimum geostatistical unit classified as having significant difficulty accessing health services since they accumulated both the physical barrier of distance and little mobility in automobiles. 65 minimum geostatistical units were identified (out of 2014 included in the study) as being at more than 20 minutes walking from the basic health care team, with a population with low mobility capacity, and consequently low socioeconomic status. Most of these were found in the Desamparados Health Area. Conclusion: This study presents and applies a methodological tool to identify the areas in which the inhabitants could have geographic access difficulties as a barrier to access to health services, both due to their distance from the health center and their mobility capacity, in Curridabat, Escazú and Desamparados.

Social inequality in incidence and mortality of malignant neoplasms of lip, oral cavity and pharynx: Is Costa Rica an international paradox?

OBJECTIVES: Low socioeconomic position (SEP) has been associated with higher incidences and mortality of lip, oral cavity and pharynx (LOP) cancers in the vast majority of countries with available data. The origins of health inequalities in cancer are socioeconomic, although they vary by time and country. Evidence from Low-and Middle-income Countries (LMICs) remains scarce. This study aims to identify and describe socioeconomic inequalities in LOP cancers incidence and mortality in Costa Rica. The hypothesis tested is that people leaving in low-SEP districts in Costa Rica have greater incidence and mortality rates of lip, oral cavity and pharynx cancers. METHODS: The 10th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) was used to define cancer sites. Data come from a national population-based Cancer Registry with 100% completeness to study incidence. Incidence rate included all new cases of LOP cancer diagnosed from January 1, 2011, and December 31, 2015, for a total of 2 798 517 individuals, 13 832 524 years of follow-up and 601 LOP cases. Mortality rate was extracted from the National Death Index, including 2 739 733 individuals, 23 950 240 person-years of follow-up and 586 LOP cancer deaths, from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2018. The 2011 Census (with 94% of Costa Rican inhabitants) was used to characterize the urbanicity and wealth of 477 districts. Survival models were performed for both incidence and mortality, allowing to consider existing competitive risks. Cox models were used for incidence, and parametric survival models based on a Gompertz distribution for mortality. RESULTS: The study found that people who lived in the most socioeconomically disadvantaged areas had lower probabilities of developing LOP cancers than people in the richest districts. The same pattern for mortality, however, was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: The hypothesis that incidence and mortality of LOP cancers will show a positive social gradient was not confirmed in this study, contradicting the existing literature. This could be explained by the social distribution of risky health behaviours, more frequent in socially advantaged populations.

The oral microbiota: a literature review for updating profesional s in dentistry-Part II / La microbiota oral: una revisión de literatura para la actualización de profesionales en odontología-Parte II

ABSTRACT: In the first part of this literature review, published in October 2019 in this journal, we summarized the conceptual background of the oral microbiota, and the main methods used in microbiology to characterize oral organisms. We also presented the most studied bacteria species in the oral microbiota. In this second part, we will discuss the evidence regarding the biological plausibility linking the oral microbiota dysbiosis and systemic diseases, as well as the main factors and mechanisms suspected in this association.

RESUMEN: En la primera parte de esta revisión de literatura, publicada en esta revista en octubre de 2019, se resumieron los antecedentes conceptuales de la microbiota oral y describieron los principales métodos utilizados en microbiología para caracterizar los microorganismos orales. Asimismo, se presentaron las especies bacterianas mejor estudiadas de la microbiota oral. En esta segunda parte, se explorará la plausibilidad biológica que vincularía la disbiosis de la microbiota oral y las enfermedades sistémicas, así como las características que podrían influenciar la composición de la microbiota oral.

Complex social gradient in life expectancy in Costa Rica: an ecological study with 24-Million person-years follow-up / Complejo gradiente socioeconómico en esperanza de vida en Costa Rica: un estudio ecológico con seguimiento de 24 millones de personas-año

ABSTRACT: The knowledge of Costa Rica's situation regarding the social gradient in mortality is still incomplete. National Electoral Rolls, which included all adult Costa Rican citizens were used. The event was death between 2010 and 2018. The exhaustive final sample included 2,747,616 people for 23,985,602 person-years of follow-up. An ecological study at the electoral district level was performed. A negative social gradient was observed in men and in women, in particular in urban area. A protective effect of rural areas compared to urban areas was revealed in men, but not in women. As a result, in men, the poorest districts of mixed/rural areas had similar life expectancy than the richest districts in urban areas. These results partially contradicted the international literature on socioeconomic inequalities. It demonstrates the importance of studying contexts other than high-income countries to better understand the social inequalities in health worldwide.

RESUMEN: El conocimiento sobre la distribución del gradiente social de la mortalidad en Costa Rica aún no ha sido totalmente comprendido y nuevos estudios pueden confirmar o refutar lo que anteriormente se ha observado. Se utilizaron las listas electorales nacionales, que incluían a todos los ciudadanos costarricenses adultos. El evento fue la muerte entre 2010 y 2018. Siendo la muestra exhaustiva final de 2.747.616 personas para 23.985.602 personas-año de seguimiento. Se realizó un estudio ecológico a nivel de distrito electoral, para caracterizar la situación socioeconómica de cada uno. Se observó un gradiente social negativo en hombres y mujeres, en particular en el área urbana. Se observó un efecto protector de las áreas rurales en comparación con las áreas urbanas en los hombres, pero no en las mujeres. Como resultado, en los hombres, los distritos más pobres de las áreas mixtas/rurales tenían una esperanza de vida similar a la de los distritos más ricos de las áreas urbanas. Estos resultados contradicen parcialmente la literatura internacional sobre las inequidades socioeconómicas en mortalidad. Demuestra la importancia de estudiar contextos distintos a los de los países de ingresos altos para comprender mejor las desigualdades sociales en salud en todo el mundo.

Prevalence of Dental Caries Among Costa Rican Male Students Aged 12-22 Years Using ICDAS-II / Prevalencia de caries en varones costarricenses escolarizados de 12 a 22 años utilizando ICDAS-II

ABSTRACT: Objective: Dental decay is a public health challenge in Low- and Middle- Income Countries, particularly for young people, often confronted to healthcare access barriers. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and severity of dental caries among young male students in Costa Rica. Study design: A cross-sectional study was performed in 428 Costa Rican male students aged 12-22 years, who attended a nonprofit social welfare boarding school in 2019. A clinical examination was ran by three calibrated examiners following the International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS-II). Results: Caries prevalence was estimated at 83%, 15% have lost a tooth due to dental decay, 61% have at least one filled tooth, 36% have at least one filled and decayed tooth. The most frequent caries lesions were codes 2-Inactive (46.7%) and code 1-Inactive (23.8%). DMFT indicated a mean index using ICDAS-II 1-6>0 codes of 7.89. Using ICDAS-II 3-6>0 as threshold, the index decreases to 3.94. Finally, the lower and upper first permanent molars were found to be the most affected teeth. Conclusions: Dental caries experience represents a significant public health burden in young people, requiring better access to public dental healthcare.

RESUMEN: Objetivo: La caries dental continúa siendo uno de los grandes desafíos de salud pública en los países de ingresos bajos y medios, en particular para los jóvenes, que a menudo se enfrentan a barreras de acceso a la atención médica y odontológica. El objetivo de este estudio es determinar la prevalencia y severidad de la caries dental entre jóvenes estudiantes varones en Costa Rica. Diseño del estudio: se realizó un estudio transversal con 428 estudiantes varones costarricenses de entre 12 y 22 años, que asistieron a un internado de asistencia social sin fines de lucro llamado Ciudad de los Niños en 2019. Tres examinadores calibrados realizaron un examen clínico siguiendo el Sistema Internacional de Detección y Evaluación de Caries. (ICDAS-II). Resultados: La prevalencia de caries se estimó en 83%, el 15% ha perdido un diente debido a caries dental, el 61% tiene al menos un diente obturado, el 36% tiene al menos un diente obturado y con caries. Las lesiones de caries más frecuentes fueron los códigos 2-Inactivo (46,7%) y el código 1-Inactivo (23,8%). CPOD indicó un índice medio utilizando códigos ICDAS-II 1-6>0 de 7,89. Usando ICDAS-II 3-6>0 como umbral, el índice disminuye a 3,94. Finalmente, los primeros molares permanentes inferiores y superiores resultaron ser los dientes más afectados. Conclusiones: La experiencia de la caries dental representa una carga de salud pública significativa en los jóvenes, que requiere un mejor acceso a la atención médica dental pública.

[COVID-19 deaths: Distribution by age and universal medical coverage in 22 countriesMortes por COVID-19: distribuição por idade e universalidade da cobertura médica em 22 países]. / Defunciones por COVID-19: distribución por edad y universalidad de la cobertura médica en 22 países.

OBJECTIVE: Relate standardized age distribution of COVID-19 deaths in 22 countries in the Americas and Europe to different indicators of population characteristics and health systems. METHODS: Distributions of COVID-19 deaths by age group in 22 countries of the Americas and Europe were standardized based on the age pyramid of the world's population. Correlations were calculated between the standardized proportion of people aged <60 years among the deceased and each of six indicators. RESULTS: Standardization based on the world age pyramid revealed considerable differences in age distribution among countries; the proportion of people aged <60 years was higher in Latin America and the United States than in Canada or Western Europe. The standardized proportion of people aged <60 years among persons who died of COVID-19 is strongly correlated to the existence of universal quality medical coverage (r=-0.92, p<0.01). This relationship remained significant after being adjusted for the other indicators. CONCLUSION: We propose that weaknesses in medical coverage of the population may have created higher case-fatality in populations aged <60 years in Latin America and the United States.

OBJETIVO: Correlacionar a distribuição etária padronizada de mortes por COVID-19 em 22 países das Américas e da Europa com diversos indicadores das características das populações e dos sistemas de saúde. MÉTODOS: As distribuições das mortes por COVID-19 por faixa etária em 22 países das Américas e da Europa foram padronizadas pela pirâmide etária da população mundial. Foram calculadas correlações entre a proporção padronizada de pessoas com menos de 60 anos entre as pessoas que morreram e cada um dos seis indicadores. RESULTADOS: Foram evidenciadas diferenças importantes de distribuição etária entre os países estudados após a padronização pela pirâmide etária da população mundial, sendo maior a proporção de mortes de pessoas com menos de 60 anos na América Latina e nos Estados Unidos que no Canadá ou na Europa ocidental. A proporção padronizada de pessoas com menos de 60 anos entre as pessoas que morreram por COVID-19 está fortemente correlacionada com a universalidade de cobertura médica de qualidade (r=­0,92, p<0,01). Esta correlação se manteve significativa após o ajuste para outros indicadores analisados. CONCLUSÃO: O nosso estudo sugere que falhas na cobertura médica da população podem ter provocado maior letalidade nas pessoas com menos de 60 anos na América Latina e nos Estados Unidos.

Determinantes de la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud oral en adultos mayores de un centro diurno costarricense: Resultados de un estudio piloto / Oral Health-Related Quality of Life Determinants in the Elderly from a Costa Rican Day Center: Findings of a Pilot Study

Resumen: El cambio de la distribución demográfica en Costa Rica establece a las personas adultas mayores (PAM) como una prioridad de salud pública. La salud oral es un indicador multidimensional, que incluye dimensiones biológicas, sociales y psicológicas. En este campo de investigación, además de utilizar las medidas de morbi-mortalidad, se ha dado una importancia a distintos indicadores que pretenden aproximar otras dimensiones subjetivas. Dentro de estas, la calidad de vida toma cada vez más importancia. Este estudio pretende identificar los principales determinantes de la Calidad de Vida Relacionada con la Salud Oral (CVRSO) en PAM de un centro diurno del cantón de Desamparados en San José, Costa Rica. Se trata de un estudio descriptivo transversal de tipo observacional realizado entre 2018 y 2019. La CVRSO, se midió a través del instrumento GOHAI (General/Geriatric Oral Health Assesment Index). Como variables independientes se incluyeron las sociodemográficas, socioeconómicas, de morbilidad, comportamientos de salud y consumo de medicamentos. Se realizaron análisis bivariados con las pruebas no paramétricas de Wilcoxon, Kruskall-Wallis y Spearman, utilizando el paquete estadístico STATA 14. Este estudio revela que existen diferencias de promedio al comparar la CVRSO y los determinantes demográficos, socioeconómicos, de morbilidad, toma de medicamentos y comportamientos de salud. Los mayores de 80 años, las mujeres, aquellos con niveles superiores de escolaridad, de ingresos altos, sin edentulismo, con niveles bajos de xerostomía, sin enfermedades, que no toman medicamentos, que no fuman, hacen deporte, que no meriendan y que consumen moderadamente azúcares, son aquellos que reportan una mejor CVRSO comparados a sus contrapartes.

Abstract: The change in the demographic distribution of Costa Rica establishes the elderly as a public health priority. Oral health is a multidimensional indicator, which includes biological, social, and psychological dimensions. Besides using measures of morbidity and mortality, different indicators seek to approximate other subjective dimensions. There is an increasing interest in analyzing the role of quality of life on health. This study aims to identify the main determinants of Oral Health-Related Quality of Life (OHRQL) in the elderly attending a day center in the city of Desamparados (San José, Costa Rica). This is a descriptive cross-sectional study ran between 2018 and 2019. OHRQL was measured via the General / Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index (GOHAI). As independent variables, sociodemographic, socioeconomic, morbidity, health behaviors, and drug consumption were included. Bivariate analyzes were performed using the Wilcoxon, Kruskall-Wallis, and Spearman non-parametric tests, using STATA 14. This study revealed differences in GOHAI scores according to demographic, socioeconomic, morbidity, medication, and health behaviors. Those over 80 years old, women, with higher levels of education, high income, without edentulism, with low levels of xerostomia, people without diseases, who do not take medication, who do not smoke, play sports, do not snack and who consume moderately sugars, are those that report a better OHRQL compared to their counterparts.

Conocimientos sobre tabaco y sus riesgos a la salud en Costa Rica: un análisis estructural / Knowledge about tobacco and its health risks in Costa Rica: structural analysis

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar factores asociados al conocimiento sobre el tabaco y los riesgos de su consumo basados en la "Encuesta global de tabaquismo en adultos" realizada en Costa Rica durante el 2015. Métodos: Estudio epidemiológico, observacional de tipo transversal con representación nacional (n = 8 607). Con la base de datos de la "Encuesta global de tabaquismo en adultos", se diseñó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales y se construyó la variable latente: conocimientos. Como determinantes del conocimiento se usaron las variables: sociodemográficas, económicas, fumado, cesación, exposición a la publicidad y a la información sobre los peligros de fumar incluidas en la encuesta. Resultados: El conocimiento sobre el tabaco y los riesgos del consumo aumentó con la edad, fue superior en hombres y en zonas urbanas. Los fumadores tuvieron menos conocimientos sobre el fumado pasivo y más sobre enfermedades. Conclusiones: La Encuesta global de tabaquismo en adultos permitió medir el nivel de conocimiento sobre los riesgos asociados al tabaco y estudiar sus determinantes socioeconómicos.

Abstract Objective: To identify tobacco knowledge and consumption risk determinants based on the Global Adult Tobacco Survey carried out in Costa Rica in 2015. Methods: Cross-sectional study using a multi-stage cluster sample, nationally representative of Costa Rica (n = 8 607). A structural equation model was conducted. A latent endogenous (dependent) variable called knowledge was constructed. Exogenous (independent) observed variables were: sociodemographic factors, household wealth, prior smoking, cessation attempt, exposure to advertising and to information on the dangers of smoking included in Global Adult Tobacco Survey. Results: Knowledge about tobacco and the risks of consumption increased with age, it was higher in men and in urban areas. Smokers had less knowledge about passive smoking and more about diseases. Conclusions: Global Adult Tobacco Survey allowed to measure the level of knowledge about the risks associated with tobacco and study its socioeconomic determinants.

Defunciones por COVID-19: distribución por edad y universalidad de la cobertura médica en 22 países / COVID-19 deaths: Distribution by age and universal medical coverage in 22 countries / Mortes por COVID-19: distribuição por idade e universalidade da cobertura médica em 22 países

RESUMEN Objetivo. Relacionar la distribución etaria estandarizada de las defunciones por COVID-19 en 22 países americanos y europeos, con diferentes indicadores de las características de las poblaciones y de los sistemas de salud. Métodos. Las distribuciones de las defunciones por COVID-19 por grupo etario en 22 países americanos y europeos fueron estandarizadas sobre la pirámide de edades de la población mundial. Se calcularon las correlaciones entre la proporción estandarizada de personas de menos de 60 años dentro de las personas fallecidas y cada uno de los seis indicadores. Resultados. Se evidenció la existencia de diferencias importantes de distribución por grupo etario entre los países después de haber estandarizado sobre la pirámide de edades a nivel mundial, siendo la proporción de personas de menos de 60 años superior en América Latina y Estado Unidos que en Canadá o Europa occidental. La proporción estandarizada de personas de menos de 60 años dentro de las personas fallecidas por COVID-19 está fuertemente correlacionada con la universalidad de una cobertura médica de calidad (r=-0,92, p<0,01). Esta relación se mantuvo significativa después de haber ajustado sobre los otros indicadores analizados. Conclusión. Se propone que las debilidades de la cobertura médica de la población podrían haber creado una mayor letalidad en las poblaciones de menos de 60 años en América Latina y en los Estados Unidos.

ABSTRACT Objective. Relate standardized age distribution of COVID-19 deaths in 22 countries in the Americas and Europe to different indicators of population characteristics and health systems. Methods. Distributions of COVID-19 deaths by age group in 22 countries of the Americas and Europe were standardized based on the age pyramid of the world's population. Correlations were calculated between the standardized proportion of people aged <60 years among the deceased and each of six indicators. Results. Standardization based on the world age pyramid revealed considerable differences in age distribution among countries; the proportion of people aged <60 years was higher in Latin America and the United States than in Canada or Western Europe. The standardized proportion of people aged <60 years among persons who died of COVID-19 is strongly correlated to the existence of universal quality medical coverage (r=-0.92, p<0.01). This relationship remained significant after being adjusted for the other indicators. Conclusion. We propose that weaknesses in medical coverage of the population may have created higher case-fatality in populations aged <60 years in Latin America and the United States.

RESUMO Objetivo. Correlacionar a distribuição etária padronizada de mortes por COVID-19 em 22 países das Américas e da Europa com diversos indicadores das características das populações e dos sistemas de saúde. Métodos. As distribuições das mortes por COVID-19 por faixa etária em 22 países das Américas e da Europa foram padronizadas pela pirâmide etária da população mundial. Foram calculadas correlações entre a proporção padronizada de pessoas com menos de 60 anos entre as pessoas que morreram e cada um dos seis indicadores. Resultados. Foram evidenciadas diferenças importantes de distribuição etária entre os países estudados após a padronização pela pirâmide etária da população mundial, sendo maior a proporção de mortes de pessoas com menos de 60 anos na América Latina e nos Estados Unidos que no Canadá ou na Europa ocidental. A proporção padronizada de pessoas com menos de 60 anos entre as pessoas que morreram por COVID-19 está fortemente correlacionada com a universalidade de cobertura médica de qualidade (r=-0,92, p<0,01). Esta correlação se manteve significativa após o ajuste para outros indicadores analisados. Conclusão. O nosso estudo sugere que falhas na cobertura médica da população podem ter provocado maior letalidade nas pessoas com menos de 60 anos na América Latina e nos Estados Unidos.

The Oral Microbiota: A Literature Review for Updating Professionals in Dentistry. Part I / La microbiota oral: una revisión de literatura para la actualización de profesionales en odontología. Parte I

Abstract In recent decades, a body of literature examining the relationships between oral health and general health has rapidly developed. However, the biological mechanisms involved in explaining such relationships have not been fully described. Recent evidence has suggested that these relationships could be partially explained by the composition and interaction of the microbiome/microbiota between local and systemic body sites. For instance, it has been suggested that intestinal microbiota could have effects on non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes or cardiovascular diseases. The objective of this study is to explore current evidence of the link between oral and systemic diseases, to discuss whether oral microbiome/microbiota could represent an unexplored biological pathway partially explaining those relationships. A non-systematic review of the literature was carried out using keyword searches in Pubmed from February to May 2019. The ultimate goal was to present recent scientific evidence to update the general knowledge on this topic to professionals in dentistry. This review is divided in two parts for journal publication; however, it is intended to be used as one piece. In this first part, we will summarize the conceptual background of oral microbiome/microbiota, we will describe the main methods used in microbiology to characterize oral organisms, and will present the main composition of bacteria in oral microbiome/microbiota. The second part highlights the main evidence regarding the biological plausibility that links oral microbiome and systemic diseases and we will conclude with some future research recommendations. Taking into account the role of oral microbiota in the development of systemic diseases could change the main paradigm of how oral health is currently conceptualized by dental professionals.

Resumen En las últimas décadas, se ha acumulado evidencia sobre las relaciones existentes entre la salud oral y la salud general. Sin embargo, los mecanismos biológicos implicados en la explicación de tales relaciones no se han logrado describir completamente. Investigaciones recientes han sugerido que parte de esta relación se podría explicar por la composición e interacción del microbioma o la microbiota a nivel local y sistémico. Por ejemplo, la evidencia ha mostrado que la microbiota intestinal parece tener efectos sobre enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles, como la diabetes o las enfermedades cardiovaculares. En esta revisión bibliográfica, se han seleccionado algunos estudios que han tratado de hipotetizar que el microbioma y la microbiota oral podrían representar un mecanismo biológico poco explorado que podría explicar parcialmente las relaciones que se han observado entre condiciones orales y enfermedades sistémicas. El objetivo de esta revisión es analizar la evidencia actual que explica los posibles mecanismos que desempeñan un papel en las asociaciones entre la salud oral y la salud sistémica. La hipótesis discutida es que el microbioma y microbiota oral podría ser un mecanismo biológico que podría explicar parcialmente las influencias de las enfermedades orales sobre la salud general. Se realizó una revisión no sistemática de la literatura entre febrero y mayo del 2019 en la plataforma PubMed. El objetivo final es presentar evidencia científica reciente para actualizar el conocimiento general sobre este tema para los profesionales en odontología. Esta revisión se presenta en dos partes por consideraciones editoriales, sin embargo, la intención es que ambas sean leídas como una sola pieza. En esta primera parte, se presentarán las bases conceptuales, se describirán los principales métodos utilizados en microbiología para caracterizar los organismos orales y se mencionará la composición descrita en la literatura de los principales microorganismos presentes en la microbiota oral. En la segunda parte, se sintetizará la evidencia principal sobre la plausibilidad biológica que vincula el microbioma oral y las enfermedades sistémicas, y concluiremos con algunas recomendaciones de investigación futuras. Esta perspectiva podría cambiar el paradigma principal de cómo se conceptualiza actualmente la salud oral por parte de los profesionales en odontología.

Las inequidades de esperanza de vida según la provincia de nacimiento en Costa Rica entre 2013 y 2017 / Health inequalities in life expectancy according to the province of birth in Costa Rica

Resumen Introducción. El objetivo de este estudio es determinar si existen inequidades de esperanza de vida en Costa Rica, en función de la provincia de nacimiento y el sexo, entre 2013 y 2017. Se valora el rol de las muertes violentas (homicidios y accidentes de tránsito) en dichas inequidades. Metodología. Se calcularon la esperanza de vida bruta y teórica (sin las muertes violentas) entre 2013 y 2017 a partir de dos padrones electorales, del registro de nacimientos y del registro de defunciones. La población estudiada sumó más de 4 millones de personas y más de 93 000 defunciones durante el período de estudio. Resultados. Existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas de esperanza de vida, según la provincia de nacimiento en Costa Rica. La mayor diferencia fue hallada en los hombres al comparar la provincia de Limón (76.1 años) versus el resto de las provincias del país (entre 77.6 años en San José y 78.7 en Alajuela). Las muertes violentas permiten explicar parcialmente esta diferencia, sin embargo la asociación continúa siendo significativa una vez que se toma este factor en cuenta en el modelo. Para las mujeres, los resultados son relativamente similares en las siete provincias, con un mínimo de 82.6 años en Puntarenas y San José, y un máximo de 83.2 en Alajuela. Conclusión. Las inequidades de esperanza de vida según la provincia de nacimiento existen en Costa Rica, pero se concentran sobre todo en los hombres que nacieron en la provincia de Limón. La ausencia de relación clara entre el desarrollo de la provincia y la esperanza de vida, en particular en las mujeres, es interesante y merece mayor investigación.

Abstract Introduction. The objective of this study is to determine the existence of life expectancy inequities depending on the province of birth in Costa Rica, according to sex, between 2013 and 2017. The role of violent deaths (homicide and traffic accidents) in these inequities is disentangled. Methods. The gross and theoretical life expectancy (without violent deaths) between 2013 and 2017 is calculated from two Electoral rolls, the Birth Registry and the Death Registry. The sample size is superior to 4 million and more than 93,000 people died during the study period. Results. There are statistically significant differences in life expectancy, according to the province of birth in Costa Rica. The greatest difference in life expectancy was found when comparing the province of Limón (76.1 years) versus the rest of the provinces of the country in men (between 77.6 years in San José and 78.7 in Alajuela). The homicide rate and mortality due to traffic accidents partially explain this difference, but the association is still significant. For women, despite being significantly different, life expectancies are similar in the seven provinces, with a minimum of 82.6 years in Puntarenas and San José, and a maximum of 83.2 in Alajuela. Conclusion. The inequities of life expectancy according to the province of birth exist in Costa Rica, but are concentrated in men who born in the province of Limón. The absence of a clear relation between province's wealth and life expectancy, particularly in women, is surprising and deserves more research.

[Sociodemographic characteristics associated with the prevalence of tobacco use in Costa RicaCaracterísticas sociodemográficas associadas à prevalência do consumo de tabaco na Costa Rica]. / Características sociodemográficas asociadas a la prevalencia del consumo de tabaco en Costa Rica.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the associations between sociodemographic characteristics and the current prevalence of tobacco use in Costa Rica, based on the results of the Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS). METHODS: Cross-sectional observational epidemiological study, country-wide (n = 8607), that used the sociodemographic variables included in GATS 2015. A logistic regression model was designed to predict the impact of those variables on current tobacco use. The dependent variable is current tobacco use, considering the social determinants available in the survey: sex, educational level, area of residence, age, and household composition. RESULTS: The logistic regression model shows that being female (OR = 0.29; P < 0.01), being 65 years old and over (OR = 0.61; P = 0.02), living in a rural area (OR = 0.63; P < 0.01), and living with other people (OR = 0.68; P < 0.01), in particular with children 15 years old or under (OR = 0.55; P < 0.01), are protective factors against tobacco use. Tobacco use declines significantly with increased wealth, as measured by household items, in women but not in men. Completing secondary education is a protective factor in people 15-34 years old (OR = 0.47; P < 0.01) but not in people 35 and over . CONCLUSIONS: There is an association between the sociodemographic variables found in the GATS Costa Rica survey carried out in 2015 and current tobacco use. Interventions at the family and community levels could help consumers give up smoking.

OBJETIVO: Determinar as associações existentes entre as características sociodemográficas e a prevalência do consumo presente de tabaco na Costa Rica, segundo os resultados da Pesquisa Global sobre Tabagismo em Adultos (Global Adult Tobacco Survey - GATS). MÉTODOS: Trata-se de um estudo epidemiológico observacional transversal com representatividade nacional (n = 8.607) com o uso das variáveis sociodemográficas estudadas na GATS realizada em 2015. Usou-se um modelo de regressão logística para predizer a influência das variáveis estudadas no consumo presente de tabaco. A variável dependente foi o consumo presente de tabaco levando em consideração os determinantes sociais disponíveis na pesquisa: gênero, nível de escolaridade, área de residência, idade e composição do domicílio. RESULTADOS: Observou-se, no modelo de regressão logística, que ser do sexo feminino (OR 0,29; P < 0,01), ter 65 anos ou mais (OR 0,61; P = 0,02), residir na zona rural (OR 0,63; P < 0,01) e viver em um domicílio com outras pessoas (OR 0,68; P < 0,01), sobretudo com crianças menores de 15 anos (OR 0,55; P < 0,01), são fatores de proteção contra o consumo de tabaco. O consumo de tabaco diminui de forma significativa com o aumento da renda (medida de acordo com o número de serviços e utilidades domésticas) apenas entre as mulheres. Ter o ensino médio completo é um fator de proteção na faixa etária entre 15 e 34 anos (OR 0,47; P < 0,01), mas não entre as pessoas acima de 35 anos. CONCLUSÕES: Existe uma associação entre as variáveis sociodemográficas estudadas na GATS de 2015 e o consumo presente de tabaco na Costa Rica. Intervenções realizadas ao nível da família e da comunidade poderiam contribuir para a cessação do tabagismo.

Bases teórico-conceptuales para el análisis de inequidades sociales en salud: una discusión / Theoretical Implications for the Analysis of Social Health Inequalities: A Discussion

RESUMEN Las Inequidades Sociales en Salud (ISS) continúan representando un gran reto para la salud pública en los diferentes países del mundo. Por su parte, el estudio, análisis y generación de conocimiento en esta materia ha sido reconocida como prioritaria para la Organización Mundial de la Salud desde 1991. La investigación de las ISS debe basarse en fundamentos teóricos y conceptuales sólidos, pues son estos las que guiarán las decisiones metodológicas en términos de diseño de investigaciones, formulación de intervenciones y políticas públicas en salud. En Latinoamérica, los estudios realizados se han basado primordialmente en experiencias que se han llevado a cabo en países industrializados. Esto ha fomentado que el análisis de las ISS reproduzca posturas teóricas y metodologías, sin necesariamente presentar una perspectiva crítica de los posibles estratificadores sociales que aproximan de la mejor forma los determinantes sociales de la salud en los contextos particulares. Por esta razón, se expone que las aproximaciones teórico-metodológicas deben ajustarse a los contextos específicos de los países; que la estratificación social de la salud debe ser evaluada de forma prioritaria; que los determinantes de la salud individuales y estructurales deben ser considerados dentro de las mediciones; y que la justificación teórica de las decisiones metodológicas realizadas en los estudios y las medidas seleccionadas deben ser explícitas y responder a hipótesis concretas. Esto con el fin de proveer un análisis crítico y herramientas útiles tanto para la investigación como para la toma de decisiones en salud. Este estudio inicia con una síntesis de los principales antecedentes históricos que han permitido la evolución del concepto de ISS. Seguidamente, se presentan los principales conceptos subyacentes relativos a la definición de ISS (determinantes sociales, equidad, justicia, estratificación y gradiente social en salud) y cómo estos deben guiar las decisiones prácticas y metodológicas. Finalmente, se concluye con algunas recomendaciones para la generación de esta evidencia científica para Latinoamérica.

ABSTRACT Social health inequalities (or inequities) continue to represent a great challenge for public health research worldwide. Since 1991, the World Health Organization established that the study and analysis of health inequalities represented a priority for all countries. To better guide methodological and practical implications of health inequalities, research on this topic should present a solid theoretical model, able to impact future public health policies. Previous studies of health inequalities in Latin America are often inspired from abroad experiences, encouraging the reproduction of mainly European theoretical positions and methodologies. However, especially when it comes to this topic, it is known the important role of the social context and culture, playing an important role in promoting differences in health outcomes. From this perspective, to operationalize the different social determinants in health, a critical perspective and thoughtful analysis of the context is mandatory. In order to provide a critical analysis and useful tools for both research and health decision making, we recommend that the theoretical and methodological approaches used in social health inequalities research must be well adapted to the specific contexts; that health social stratification must be assessed as a priority; that individual and the wider health determinants must be well characterized; and that the theoretical justification of the methodological decisions made in the studies and the selected measures must be explicit and should answer specific hypotheses. This research provides a brief historical background, to share the basis for the conceptual evolution of social health inequalities; the main underlying concepts related to the definition of health inequalities (social determinants, equity, justice, stratification and social gradient in health); and some recommendations for the future perspectives of health inequalities research in Latin America.